Accounting Chapter’s
Learn practical accounting skills with clear, easy-to-follow lessons.
Chapter 1: Definition of term accounting: What is accounting.
BASICS OF ACCOUNTING
In detail explanation with practical and real life examples
Creator: CA, CFE Vivekanand Sarkar (FAFD, Bcom)
List of Chapters:
- Introduction/Brief explanation to accounting basics:
- This section provides a beginner-friendly overview of fundamental accounting concepts, principles, and terms. It is designed to help you build a rock-solid foundation so you can confidently and conveniently explore the various lessons, exercises, and training tools available on this website.
- Here, you’ll be introduced to essential accounting terms such as definition of term accounting, Accounting equation, rules of debit credit, revenue, expenses, assets, liabilities, income statement, balance sheet, and cash flow statement.
- Six key accounting principles like Accrual, Matching, revenue recognition, Going Concern, Materiality and cost principles are explained to show how businesses report financial performance accurately and fairly over time.
- To keep the content clear and practical, some complex topics may be simplified. This guide is intended for general learning purposes and should not be used as a substitute for professional accounting advice tailored to your specific needs.
Chapter 1: Definition of term Accounting: What is Accounting.
- ICAI: The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) defines accounting as “the process of recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting financial transactions to provide meaningful financial information.”
- Merriam-Webster.com: According to Merriam-Webster.com, accounting is defined as “the system of recording and summarizing business and financial transactions and analyzing, verifying, and reporting the results“
- AICPA: The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) defines accounting as: “The art of recording, classifying, and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.”
Chapter 2: Basis of accounting: Cash v/s Accrual Accounting.
Welcome to Chapter 2 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
- Key Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- Define what “basis of accounting” means and why it matters
- Distinguish between Cash Basis and Accrual Basis Accounting with clarity
- Apply both methods to real-world business scenarios
- Analyze how different accounting bases tell different stories about the same business
- Determine which accounting basis is appropriate for different business types
- Recommended Duration: 12–15 minutes
In this chapter, we’ll explore one of the most fundamental concepts in accounting— the Basis of Accounting.
You’ll learn its two main types:
- Cash Basis Accounting, and
- Accrual Basis Accounting.
But here’s the key idea: Accounting isn’t just about what you record; it’s about when you record it.
The “basis of accounting” refers to the specific set of rules a business follows to decide when revenues and expenses should appear in its books.
To make this concept come alive, let’s explore it through a simple, story-driven example featuring our two friends — Vivek and Parag — who run their own small food stalls. Their choices in recording income and expenses will show us how different accounting bases can tell very different stories about the same business.
- STORY: Same Business, Different Books – The Street food Accountants
Episode 1: Vivek and Parag are childhood friends who started their own food stall in Vadodara.
- Vivek runs a Samosa stall near the railway station.
- Parag runs a Vadapav stall outside a college.
Both are hardworking and hence every evening, their shops are full of customers. However, when it comes to keeping accounts, they follow very different styles.
Episode 2: Vivek’s Samosa Stall → Cash Basis Accounting
Vivek likes to keep his accounting simple and records the transactions only when the cash is received or paid.
- A customer buys samosas for ₹200 and pays cash → Vivek records Revenue ₹200 today.
- He pays ₹100 to his potato supplier → Vivek records Expense ₹100 today.
- A student takes samosas on credit and says, “I’ll pay tomorrow” → Vivek records nothing today. He will record it when he gets the cash.
- For Vivek, the rule is clear:
Cash Basis = “It’s only counted when the money is in hand or out of hand. No cash, no record for today.”
Episode 3: Parag’s Vadapav Stall → Accrual Basis Accounting
Parag thinks differently and wants his financial records to tell the complete story of his stall’s true performance for that specific day or week or month, regardless of when the actual money is received or paid.
- He sells vadapavs worth ₹1,000 today. Half the customers will pay next week → Parag still records Revenue ₹1,000 today (because the sales happened today).
- He buys bread and potatoes worth ₹500 from his supplier. Payment is due in 10 days → He records Expense ₹500 today.
- For Parag, the principle was clear:
Accrual Basis = “Record it when the income is earned or the expense is incurred, not simply when the cash changes hands.”
- Key Takeaways:
- Cash Basis Accounting
- Income is recorded only when cash is received.
- Expenses are recorded only when cash is paid.
- Simple method, often used by small businesses or individuals.
- Accrual Basis Accounting
- Income is recorded when it is earned, even if not yet received.
- Expenses are recorded when they are incurred, even if not yet paid.
- More accurate and widely used by companies.
- Comparison Table:
| Feature | Cash Basis | Accrual Basis |
| Revenue | Recorded when cash is received. | Recorded when revenue is earned. |
| Expenses | Recorded when cash is paid. | Recorded when expenses are incurred. |
| Complexity | Simple | More complex |
| Accuracy | Less accurate picture of overall financial health. | More accurate picture of profitability. |
| Commonly Used By | Small businesses, freelancers. | Most companies, especially larger ones. |
- Closing Summary: This chapter explained how the basis of accounting affects when transactions are recorded.
- Cash basis records only when money changes hands.
- Accrual basis records when income is earned or expenses are incurred — offering a clearer view of business performance.
- Next Steps:
Chapter 3: Double Entry System of accounting.
Welcome to Chapter 3 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
In this chapter, we’ll explore one of the most fundamental concepts in accounting— double entry system.
⚖ The Concept: Double entry System
The double entry system is an accounting method which ensures that every financial transactions is recorded in at least two accounts i.e. each transaction having both a debit and a credit entry of same value keeping the accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Equity) balanced. This is why the system is called double entry system.
- The Story: Vivek and His Balanced Books
Let’s understand the double entry system of accounting with a story of Vivek, who runs a samosa stall near a railway station and keeps his books balanced following a double entry system.
- Example 1: Simple Transaction (Two Accounts)
A customer purchases 10 samosas worth ₹20/- each and pays in cash on 01st April 2025.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 01-04-2025 | Cash account | ₹ 200.00 | |
| Sales account | ₹ 200.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record sales in cash | ||
- Transactions involving more than two accounts: Although the system is called “double-entry” because every transaction must affect at least two accounts, a single transaction can sometimes involve three or more accounts.
- Example 2: Loan Repayment with Interest
Vivek, who runs his samosa stall, makes a payment of ₹10,000 towards a bank loan from cash generated from his business on 02nd April 2025. Out of this:
- ₹8,000 goes toward reducing the loan principal
- ₹2,000 is paid as interest expense
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Bank loan account | ₹ 8,000.00 | |
| Interest expenses account | ₹ 2,000.00 | ||
| Cash account | ₹ 10,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record payment made towards bank loan – Principal + Interest |
- The Role of Accounting Software:
In today’s modern world, businesses use accounting software which is built on the doubleentry system, but it hides the complexity so users don’t have to manually record both sides of every transaction.
The interface is designed to be simple and userfriendly, so instead of showing you every debit and credit, the system quietly takes care of them.
- Example 3: Vivek uses accounting software to manage his samosa stall. At the end of the month, he pays ₹2,000 rent for his stall by check.
- On the screen, the software simply asks him: “Which expense is this payment for?”
- Vivek selects Rent Expense and enters the amount.
What happens behind the scenes?
- The software automatically credits Cash A/c ₹2,000 (reducing assets).
- It also debits Rent Expense A/c ₹2,000 (increasing expenses).
Chapter 4: Golden rules of Accounting.
Welcome to Chapter 4 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
In the previous chapter, we learned how the Double Entry System keeps every transaction balanced.
In this chapter, we’ll explore the guiding principles that tell us which account to debit and which to credit — the Golden Rules of Accounting.
- The Golden Rules at a Glance:
| Type of Account | Meaning | Golden Rule |
| Personal Account | Relates to individuals, firms, or organizations. | Debit the Receiver, Credit the Giver |
| Real Account | Relates to tangible and intangible assets. | Debit what comes in, Credit what goes out |
| Nominal Account | Relates to income, expenses, gains, and losses. | Debit all Expenses and Losses, Credit all Incomes and Gains |
- EXAMPLES:
- Personal Account: Parag lends Vivek ₹5,000 to expand his stall.
- Parag (the giver) → Credited
- Vivek’s Cash A/c (the receiver) → Debited
- Real Account: Vivek buys a new stove for ₹3,000.
- Stove (asset coming in) → Debited
- Cash (going out) → Credited
- Nominal Account: Vivek pays ₹2,000 as stall rent.
- Rent Expense (loss) → Debited
- Cash → Credited
- KEY TAKEAWAYS:
- When someone gives you value → Credit them.
- When someone receives value → Debit them.
- When something comes into your business → Debit it.
- When something goes out → Credit it.
- When you spend money → Debit the expense.
- When you earn income → Credit the income
Chapter 5: Debit and Credit Rules
- Topic 5A: Account Types & Their Usual Balances.
- Topic 5B: Journal Entries.
- Topic 5C: Bank Transactions: Understanding Debits and Credits.
- Topic 5D: Cash Transactions: Understanding Debits and Credits
- Topic 5E: Credit Rule: Revenue, Gains, Liability, & Equity (and their Exceptions).
- Topic 5F: Debit Rule: Expenses, losses and Assets (and their Exceptions).
Welcome to Chapter 5 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
In the last chapter, we discovered the Golden Rules of Accounting—the guiding principles that tell us which account to debit and which to credit.
Now, it’s time to go one step deeper and understand the very language of accounting entries: Debits and Credits.
- WHAT ARE DEBITS AND CREDITS?
Debits and credits are basically two sides of the double entry book keeping system which is used to record and classify all financial transaction to keep the books of accounts in balance.
Debiting an account means to enter an amount in the left-hand side of the account and crediting an account means to enter an amount in the right-hand side of the account.
An easy way to remember or memorize the debit and credit rules in accounting is by using memory technique such as the DEALER method or the DEAL method or the GIRLS method.
- DEALER method: The D-E-A-L-E-R method is used to easily remember the accounts that are increased by a Debit and the accounts that are increased by a credit.
- HOW IT WORKS:
- The first half (D-E-A) → accounts that increase with a debit
- The second half (L-E-R) → accounts that increase with a credit
| Rule | Account Type | Normal Balance | Increases with | Grouping |
| D | Dividends / Drawings | Debit | Debit | DEA |
| E | Expenses | Debit | Debit | DEA |
| A | Assets | Debit | Debit | DEA |
| L | Liabilities | Credit | Credit | LER |
| E | Equity | Credit | Credit | LER |
| R | Revenue | Credit | Credit | LER |
- DEAL method: This method is a simpler version of dealer rule. The D-E-A-L rule focuses on remembering the accounts that are increased with a DEBIT.
| Rule | Account Type | Normal Balance | Increases with |
| D | Dividends / Drawings | Debit | Debit |
| E | Expenses | Debit | Debit |
| A | Assets | Debit | Debit |
| L | Losses | Debit | Debit |
- G.I.R.L.S method: The G-I-R-L-S method focuses on remembering the accounts that are increased with a CREDIT.
| Rule | Account Type | Normal Balance |
| G | Gains (Revenue) | Credit |
| I | Income | Credit |
| R | Revenue | Credit |
| L | Liabilities | Credit |
| S | Stockholders’ Equity | Credit |
Topic 5A: Account Types & Their Usual Balances: The below lists explains the major account types and their usual balances:
| Type of Account | Usual Balance Side |
| Assets | Debit |
| Contra Assets (e.g., Accumulated Depreciation) | Credit |
| Liabilities | Credit |
| Contra Liabilities (e.g., Unexpired Interest on Hire Purchases) | Debit |
| Owner’s Capital or Equity | Credit |
| Shareholders’ Equity | Credit |
| Drawings or Dividends | Debit |
| Revenue or Income | Credit |
| Expenses | Debit |
| Gains | Credit |
| Losses | Debit |
Topic 5B: Journal Entries: A general journal entry is a way to effectively and systematically record all business transactions.
Each journal entry must include the following four components, and adhering to this format ensures that every transaction of a company’s financial activity is recorded with maximum clarity and consistency:
- Date: The date on which the transactions occurred.
- Debit: The account(s) to be debited are listed first, along with their corresponding amounts in the debit column.
- Credit Entry: The account(s) to be credited are listed next, with their amounts in the credit column.
- Narration: A brief but clear explanation detailing the purpose and nature of the transaction.
Topic 5C: Bank Transactions: Understanding Debits and Credits
In accounting, the word “Cash” generally means physical monies or currencies. But in practice, most businesses today carry out the majority of their transactions through a bank account rather than with Cash.
For accounting purpose and from company’s perspective or your point of view, the Bank account is an Asset, just like Cash. Therefore, the same debit and credit rules that apply to the Cash account also apply to the Bank account.
However, the real confusion often arises because a bank’s point of view on debits and credits is exactly opposite of yours or company’s perspective. Therefore, understanding both the viewpoints is crucial for reconciling bank statements.
- When you are the business (Company’s books or your ledger)
In your books, the Bank Account represents your money kept with the bank. That means it’s treated as an Asset Account.
| Transaction | Effect on Your Bank Account | Debit or Credit? | Reason |
| You deposit cash or receive money into the bank | Bank balance increases | Debit | In accounting, debit increases assets → your bank balance goes up. |
| You withdraw cash or make payment from the bank | Bank balance decreases | Credit | In accounting, credit decreases assets → your bank balance goes down. |
✨ Example: Vivek’s Samosa Stall (Company’s Books)
On 10th April 2025, Vivek deposits ₹1,500 received from his daily sales into its bank account.
- Company’s Books Entry:
- Debit: Bank (or Cash) ₹1,500
- Credit: Sales Revenue ₹1,500
- Impact: Bank Asset ↑, Revenue ↑
- When You Are the Bank (Your Bank statement or Bank’s Perspective)
In the bank’s books, your bank balance is actually a liability for the bank because it’s money they owe you. Since it’s a liability to them (not an asset), they record debits and credits the opposite way you do.
| Transaction | Effect in Bank’s Books | Debit or Credit? |
| You deposit money | Bank’s liability to you increases | Credit |
| You withdraw money | Bank’s liability to you decreases | Debit |
✨ Example: Bank’s Books
Þ Referring to the above example transactions, the same ₹1,500 deposit by Vivek is recorded by the bank.
· Bank Statement Display: This will appear as a CREDIT of ₹1,500 on your bank statement, increasing your balance.
- KEY HIGHLIGHTS: Summary of Bank Transactions: Two Perspectives
| Event | In Your Books (Your View) | On Bank Statement (Bank’s View) |
| Deposit (Money coming in) | Debit Bank A/c | Credit Your Account |
| Withdrawal (Money going out ) | Credit Bank A/c | Debit Your Account |
⚖ Why This Matters for Reconciliation
This difference in perspective is why we do bank reconciliation — to make sure your records and the bank’s records agree on the same balance.
Differences usually happen because of:
- Timing differences – for example, checks not yet cleared or deposits not yet updated
- Recording errors (either in your books or the bank’s records)
Understanding debits and credits from both sides is the first step to finding and fixing these differences.
Topic 5D: Cash Transactions: Understanding Debits and Credits
Cash is involved in most of the business transactions and therefore it is essential to understand when Cash account is debited and when it is credited.
- The Fundamental rules for Cash account:
- Whenever cash is received → Debit Cash
- Whenever cash is paid out → Credit Cash
This simple rule makes cash transactions easier to record as you always know what to do with Cash first.
✨ Example 1: Cash Received from a Customer
On 03rd April 2025, Vivek’s samosa stall collects ₹600 from a customer who had bought samosas on credit last month.
- Debit: Cash A/c ₹600 (asset increases)
- Credit: Accounts Receivable A/c ₹600 (asset decreases)
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 03-04-2025 | Cash account | ₹ 600.00 | |
| Accounts receivable account | ₹ 600.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record cash received from customer against earlier credit sale | ||
✨ Example 2: Cash Paid to a Supplier
On 04th April 2025, Vivek pays ₹250 to his potato supplier for goods he had received in May.
- Debit: Accounts Payable A/c ₹250 (liability decreases)
- Credit: Cash A/c ₹250 (asset decreases)
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 04-04-2025 | Accounts payable account | ₹ 250.00 | |
| Cash account | ₹ 250.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record cash payment made to supplier for earlier credit purchase | ||
If you memorize the below tip then you will never go wrong with the cash account:
Topic 5E: Credit Rule: Revenue, Gains, Liability, & Equity (and their Exceptions).
Under the double entry accounting system, accounts maintain a normal balance, which determines whether they increase via debit or credit entries according to their classification.
Revenue, Gains, Liabilities, and Equity have normal Credit balances, which mean:
- To increase Revenue, Gains, Liabilities, and Equity accounts → Credit them
- To decrease these accounts → Debit them
Let’s explore each category in details:
- Revenue accounts: Generally Credit balances.
- Definition: Revenue accounts record income generated from the company’s main business activities, such as selling goods or providing service.
- Account Examples:
- Sales account
- Services account
- Consulting fees account
- Interest Income, etc.
- Logic: Revenue increases owner’s equity and equity accounts normally carry a credit balance.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek sold samosa worth ₹350.
- Debit: Cash account ₹350
- Credit: Sales account ₹350
- Gains accounts: Generally Credit balances.
- Definition: These accounts record gains from non-regular or non-operating events outside the regular course of business.
- Account Examples:
- Gain on sale of Equipment
- Gain on sale of Investments
- Logic: Gains increase owner’s equity, similar to revenue.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek sells old bike for ₹7,000 (Book value: ₹0.00)
- Debit: Cash account ₹7,000
- Credit: Gain on sale of equipment account ₹7,000
- Liabilities accounts: Generally Credit balances.
- Definition: Liabilities account records the company’s financial obligations or amounts owed by the company to external parties. Liabilities are classified as:
- Current Liabilities: Obligations due within one year.
- Accounts Payable
- Salaries Payable
- Short-term Loans
- Non-Current Liabilities: Obligations due beyond one year.
- Long-term Loans
- Bonds Payable
- Long-term Lease Liabilities
- Logic: Liabilities are external claims on company assets and balance against assets.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek bought potatoes on credit for ₹1,000.
- Debit: Stock on hand ₹1,000
- Credit: Accounts payable ₹1,000
- Equity accounts: Generally Credit balances.
- Definition: An Equity account represents the owners’ ownership interest in the business after liabilities are deducted from assets.
- Account Examples:
- Owners capital (If company: Share Capital)
- Owners Drawings
- Retained Earnings
- Logic: Equity is the “balancing figure” in the accounting equation (Assets = Liabilities + Equity)
- Transactions Examples: Vivek invested ₹15,000 cash into the business.
- Debit: Cash account ₹15,000
- Credit: Owners Capital account ₹15,000
- Exceptions to the Rule: Contra Accounts
While Revenue, Gains, Liability, & Equity normally have credit balances, certain related accounts known as Contra accounts are an exception and have debit balances instead.
- Concept: What is a Contra Accounts
- A contra account is an account used to reduce the balance of a related parent or main account on the financial statements.
- These Contra accounts work in the opposite direction to reduce their parent or main account.
Few examples of revenue, liability and equity contra accounts are as below:
- Example 1: Contra-Revenue Accounts
- Parent Account: Sales Revenue Account (Credit)
- Contra Account: Sales Returns & Allowances Account (Debit)
- Effect: Net Revenue = Sales Revenue Less Sales Returns
✨ Example 2: Contra-Liability Accounts
- Parent Account: Hire Purchase (HP) Liability Account (Credit)
- Contra Account: Unexpired Interest on Hire Purchase Account (Debit)
- Effect: Net principal outstanding = HP Less Unexpired Interest.
✨ Example 3: Contra-Equity Accounts
- Parent Account: Owner’s Capital Account (Credit)
- Contra Account: Owner’s Drawings Account (Debit)
- Effect: Net Equity = Capital − Drawings
Topic 5F: Debit Rule: Expenses, losses and Assets (and their Exceptions).
Expenses, losses and Assets have normal Debit balances, which mean:
- To increase Expenses, losses and Assets accounts → Debit them
- To decrease these accounts → Credit them
Let’s explore each category in details:
- Assets accounts: Generally Debit balances.
- Definition: An Asset account represents the resources owned by a business that are expected to provide future economic benefits or help generate income.
- Account Examples:
- Cash account
- Equipment account
- Inventory account
- Buildings account
- Logic: Assets brings in future benefit and hence debited as value is coming into the business.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek buys scooter for ₹75,000.
- Debit: Scooter account (Asset) ₹75,000
- Credit: Cash account ₹75,000
- Expenses accounts: Generally Debit balances.
- Definition: An expenses account represents costs incurred to generate revenue.
- Account Examples:
- Rent account
- Salaries account
- Accountancy fees account
- Logic: Expenses reduce profits (i.e. Equity), and equity has a credit balance. Thus, expenses must be debited to reduce it.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek pays rent of ₹5,000.
- Debit: Rent account ₹5,000
- Credit: Cash account ₹5,000
- Losses accounts: Generally Debit balances.
- Definition: A Loss represents decrease in economic benefit i.e. decrease in equity due to non-operating or extraordinary event.
- Account Examples:
- Loss on sale of Equipment
- Capital loss account
- Loss due to T
- Logic: Loss reduces equity and hence like expenses they follow the same debit rule.
- Transactions Examples: Vivek sold the scooter for Nil as it was damaged beyond repair (Book Value – ₹20,000).
- Debit: Loss on sale of asset account ₹20,000
- Credit: Scooter account (Asset) ₹20,000
- Exceptions to the Rule: Contra Accounts
While Expenses, losses and Assets normally have debit balances, certain related accounts known as Contra accounts are an exception and have credit balances instead.
Few examples of expenses, losses and assets contra accounts are as below:
- Example 1: Contra-Expense Accounts
- Parent Account: Salaries Expense Account (Credit)
- Contra Account: Salaries Reimbursement Account (Credit)
- Effect: Net Expense = Salaries Expense Less Reimbursements
- Example 2: Contra-Loss Accounts
- Parent Account: Loss on Sale of Asset (Debit)
- Contra Account: Gain on Sale of Asset (Credit)
- Effect: Net Loss/Gain = Loss Less Gain (or vice versa depending on transaction outcome)
- Example 3: Contra-Asset Accounts
- Parent Account: Equipment Account (Debit)
- Contra Account: Accumulated Depreciation – Equipment (Credit)
- Effect: Net Book Value = Equipment Cost Less Accumulated Depreciation
- KEY TAKEAWAYS:
Here are the key takeaways from the chapter on Debit and Credit Rules:
- Debit (Dr) = Left side of an account
- Credit (Cr) = Right side of an account
- Each transaction impacts two or more accounts
- Each transaction involves at least one debit and one credit
- Total Debits = Total Credits (must always balance)
- Cash received → Debit Cash
- Cash paid out → Credit Cash
- Company’s Books (Asset View): Deposit → Debit Bank Account
- Company’s Books (Asset View): Withdrawal → Credit Bank Account
- Bank’s Books (Liability View): Deposit → Credit (increases bank’s liability to customer)
- Bank’s Books (Liability View): Withdrawal → Debit (decreases liability)
- Understanding both perspectives is key for Bank Reconciliation
- Normal Debit Balances: Assets, Drawings/Dividends, Expenses, Losses
- Normal Credit Balances: Liabilities, Equity, Revenue, Gains
- Asset Increase, Debit the asset account
- Liability Increase, Credit the liability account
- Equity Increase, Credit the equity account
- Revenues Increase, Credit the revenue account
- Expenses Increase, Debit the expense account
- Parent A/c has Credit Balance → Contra A/c has Debit Balance
- Parent A/c has Debit Balance → Contra A/c has Credit Balance
Chapter 6: Chart of accounts.
Chart is a Chart of Accounts (CoA)?
A chart of accounts is master list of all the accounts used by an organization to record its financial transactions in the general ledger.
An organization has the flexibility to shape its Chart of Accounts according to its business needs and scale, including adding new accounts or removing accounts according to the requirements.
Each account in the CoA has:
- An Account Name (e.g., Cash, Sales Revenue, Rent Expense)
- An Account Type (Asset, Liability, Equity, Revenue, or Expense)
- An Account Code/Number for easy identification (e.g., 101 for Cash, 201 for Accounts Payable)
Primary Categories in a Chart of Accounts (CoA): All accounts in the CoA are primarily grouped into the following five categories:
| Category | Description | Examples |
| Assets | Resources that your business owns | Cash at bank, accounts receivable, inventory, vehicles |
| Liabilities | Amounts your business owes to others | Trade creditors, GST payable, loans, superannuation payable |
| Equity | Owner’s investment and retained earnings | Owner’s capital, drawings, retained profits |
| Revenue | Money your business earns | Sale of goods, service income, interest received |
| Expenses | Costs of running your business | Rent, wages, utilities, software subscriptions |
Numbering Systems of Chart of Accounts (CoA): Most accounting software uses number ranges to organize different types of accounts.
| Account Type | Number Range |
| Assets | 1000–1999 |
| Liabilities | 2000–2999 |
| Equity | 3000–3999 |
| Revenue | 4000–4999 |
| Expenses | 5000–5999 |
Chapter 7: Accounting principles.
Welcome to Chapter 7 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
In this chapter, we’ll explore the key Accounting Principles that form the backbone of financial reporting. Through our signature storytelling approach, we’ll see how these principles come alive.
Vivek, a passionate street food lover, embarks on entrepreneurial journey by starting his own food truck called “Samosa by AuzzAccounts” parked in the lively streets of Vadsar area, Vadodara, Gujarat with ₹1,00,000 from his personal savings.
But here’s the catch: running a food truck isn’t just about frying samosas—it’s also about keeping track of money, decisions, and performance. To do this well, Vivek must follow a set of accounting principles that ensure his records are clear, consistent, and trustworthy.
In this chapter, we’ll explore these principles one by one, bringing them to life through Vivek’s entrepreneurial journey. You’ll see how each principle shapes journal entries, and how those entries flow into financial statements that tells the true story of his business.
- Principle 1: Business (Economic) entity Principle: The business entity principle states that the financial transactions of the business must be kept separate from the personal transactions of the owner.
- Transactions: Vivek starts his business by investing ₹100,000 of his personal savings.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 01-04-2025 | Cash | ₹100,000.00 | |
| Capital Introduced | ₹100,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record initial investment from personal savings to start the business. |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Cash increases by ₹1,00,000
- Equity: Vivek’s capital increases by ₹1,00,000
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset: – Cash is an asset, and it increased due to the initial investment by the owner |
| Credit | Capital Introduced | Equity | In accounting, credit increases liabilities and Equity: – Vivek’s investment increases his ownership in the company, which is an equity account. |
- Principle 2: Cost Principle: The cost principle states that assets should be recorded at their original purchase cost and not at their current market value.
- Transactions: Vivek buys cooking equipment like Deep fryer, burners, and various utensils like cutting boards and Knives for ₹20,000.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Cooking Equipment | 20,000.00 | |
| Cash | 20,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of cooking equipment |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Cash decreases by ₹20,000 and equipment (non-current asset) increases by ₹20,000. Total assets remain unchanged.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cooking Equipment | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset: – Cooking equipment is capital expenditure and hence treated as asset. |
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: – Cash is used to purchase cooking equipment which reduces business cash balance which is an asset account. |
- Principle 3: The Accrual principle: The Accrual Principle states that revenues and expenses must be recorded when they are earned or incurred and not when the cash is received or paid.
- Transactions: Vivek buys flour, potatoes, spices and oil for ₹10,000 on credit from a local vegetable vendor.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 03-04-2025 | Inventory (Closing stock) | 10,000.00 | |
| Accounts payable | 10,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of stocks on credit |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Inventory (Stock on hand – Current asset) increases by ₹10,000.
- Liabilities: Accounts payable increases by ₹10,000.
- The accounting equation remains balanced i.e. Assets ₹110,000 = Liabilities ₹10,000 + Equity ₹100,000.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Inventory (Closing stock) | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset: – Purchasing inventory increases the amount of goods the company owns, which is an asset. |
| Credit | Accounts payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: – Purchasing inventory on credit creates an obligation to pay the supplier in the future, thus increasing accounts payable, a liability. |
- Principle 4: Revenue Recognition Principle: The Revenue Recognition Principle states that revenue should be recognized when it is earned, regardless of when the cash is received.
- Transactions: In first month of business i.e. April 2025, Vivek’s samosa became an instant hit and sold samosa worth ₹25,000 out of which cash sales were ₹20,000 and credit sales were ₹5,000.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Cash | 20,000.00 | |
| Accounts receivable | 5,000.00 | ||
| Sales | 25,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record sales for the month of April |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Profit and loss account:
- Sales revenue of ₹25,000
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Cash increases by ₹20,000, and Accounts Receivable increases by₹5,000.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset: – Cash collected increases the business’s cash balance, which is an asset account. |
| Credit | Accounts receivable | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset: – Credit sales increase the amount customers owe the business, recorded as Accounts Receivable (also an asset). |
| Credit | Sales | Liability | In accounting, credit increases revenues: – Sales represent earnings for the business and are recorded in a revenue account, which increases with a credit entry. |
- Principle 5: Matching Principle: The Matching principle states that expenses should be recorded in the same period as the revenues they helped to generate.
- Transactions: In order to generate sales of ₹25,000, Vivek used materials and ingredients worth ₹7,500 and paid fuel (₹2,000), gas (₹1,500), Repairs (₹1,000) and other utilities like water (₹500), electricity (₹200) in May month.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Cost of goods sold | 7,500.00 | |
| Inventory | 7,500.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record sales for the month of April | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Fuel | 2,000.00 | |
| Gas | 1,500.00 | ||
| Repairs | 1,000.00 | ||
| Water | 500.00 | ||
| Electricity | 200.00 | ||
| Cash | 5,200.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record various expenses in April month |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Profit and loss account:
- Cost of Goods Sold of ₹7,500 is deducted from Sales Revenue, resulting in a Gross Profit of ₹17,500 and Various expenses of ₹5,200 is consider operating expenses resulting in Net profit of ₹12,300.
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Inventory decreases by ₹7,500.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cost of goods sold | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Cost of Goods Sold is an expense account. It reflects the cost incurred to produce or purchase the goods that have now been sold, reducing profit. |
| Credit | Inventory | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: – Inventory is an asset. When goods are sold, the inventory reduces, hence it is credited. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Expenses: Fuel, Gas, Water, Repairs, Electricity. | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – All the expense accounts like fuel, gas, repairs, water, and electricity are debited because they represent the cost of running the business during April. |
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: – Cash is credited because money was spent to pay these expenses, reducing the cash balance. |
- Principle 6: Materiality Principle: The materiality principle states that information that is significant enough to impact the decisions of users should be included in financial statements.
- Transactions: One customer paid extra ₹10.00 for donation box. Vivek decides not to record it as it immaterial for decision making.
- Principle 7: Going Concern Principle: The going concern principle states that a business will operate in foreseeable future allowing it to record assets and liabilities and defer expenses without anticipating liquidation.
- Transactions: Vivek records depreciation on cooking equipment at 30% for the month of April.
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Depreciation | 500.00 | |
| Accumulated Depreciation | 500.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record depreciation on cooking equipment for April month. |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Profit and loss account:
- Depreciation expenses of ₹500 are recorded in Profit and loss account.
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Cooking equipment decreases by ₹500.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Depreciation | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Depreciation is an expense that accounts for the wear and tear of fixed assets like cooking equipment. It reduces profit for the period. |
| Credit | Accumulated Depreciation | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: – Accumulated Depreciation is a contra-asset account. It offsets the related asset (e.g., cooking equipment) and increases as depreciation is recorded. |
- Principle 8: Consistency Principle: The consistency principle states that a business must apply the same accounting methods and policies across periods to allow comparability and reliability of financial statements over time.
- Transactions: Vivek decides to use Straight line method of depreciation to depreciate cooking equipment.
- Principle 9: Conservatism Principle: The conservatism principle states that record expenses and liabilities as soon as possible but revenue and assets only when they are certain.
- Transactions: Vivek pays parking rent for 3 months in advance i.e. ₹6,000 in total in April (per month rent is ₹2,000).
- Journal Entry:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Rent | 2,000.00 | |
| Prepaid expenses | 4,000.00 | ||
| Cash | 6,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record rent expenses of April and prepay the rent paid in advance for next two months. |
- Impact on financial statements:
- Profit and loss account:
- Rent expenses of ₹2,000 are recorded in Profit and loss account.
- Balance sheet:
- Assets: Cash decreases by ₹6,000 and prepaid rent expenses increases the current assets by ₹4,000 in April month.
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Rent Prepaid expenses | Asset | In accounting, debit increases expenses and assets: – Rent is debited to record April’s monthly rent as an expense. – Prepaid Expenses is debited because the business has paid for future rent (an asset until consumed). |
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: – Cash is credited because money was paid out, reducing the cash balance. |
- Principle 10: Objectivity principle: The objectivity principle states that financial information should be based on solid evidence and not on personal bias or opinions.
- Transactions: Someone offers Vivek ₹25,000 for all the cooking equipment
- The Market value of cooking equipment seems to be ₹25,000 but Vivek doesn’t inflate the cost to ₹25,000 and keeps the cost of cooking equipment to ₹20,000 only i.e. at its historical purchase cost.
- Principle 11: Time period principle: The time period principle states that a financial reports of business should be reported over consistent and defined intervals—such as monthly, quarterly, or annually—to enable timely and comparable financial analysis.
Chapter 8: The Accounting Equation: A Foundation of Financial Accounting.
Welcome to Chapter 8 of our journey through the Basics of Accounting.
In this chapter, we are going to learn and understand the most fundamental accounting concept: The Accounting Equation, its importance in maintaining financial balance, and how it is applied in real-world accounting practices. Understanding the accounting equation is crucial for anyone involved in financial reporting, analysis, or decision-making.
The accounting equation is the backbone of the double-entry bookkeeping system. It represents the relationship between a company’s assets, liabilities, and equity. The equation is expressed as follows:
Assets = Liabilities + Equity (A = L + E)
Let’s break down each component:
- Assets: These are the resources owned by a company that have future economic value. Examples include cash, accounts receivable (money owed to the company by customers), inventory, equipment, and buildings. Assets are what the company owns.
- Liabilities: These are the obligations of a company to external parties (creditors). They represent what the company owes to others. Examples include accounts payable (money owed to suppliers), salaries payable, loans, and deferred revenue.
- Equity: This represents the owners’ stake in the company’s assets after deducting liabilities. It’s the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities. For corporations, equity is often referred to as stockholders’ equity or shareholders’ equity. It includes items like common stock, retained earnings (accumulated profits not distributed as dividends), and additional paid-in capital.
Let’s unpack this with the story of Vivek, a young entrepreneur from Vadodara with a big dream, who starts small to open a modern, friendly neighborhood kirana store. Let’s follow Vivek’s financial journey through Accountzz where every transaction tells a part of his story.
The name of Vivek’s store is “EquityMart – Kirana Store”.
Scenario 1: Starting the business “EquityMart – Kirana Store”.
- Date: 01/04/2025
- Transaction: Vivek starts his business, “Vivek’s Equity Mart – Kirana Store,” by transferring ₹5,00,000 from his personal savings into the business.
- He puts ₹4,80,000 in the Business Bank Account (For e.g. SBI Current Bank account) and
- ₹20,000 as Petty Cash for small daily expenses
- Concept: Petty Cash is a small amount of cash kept on hand for minor, every day and regular expenses where it would be difficult to issue a check or use a credit card, such as for tea, stationery, or small reimbursements.
- This initial investment by Vivek in his own Kirana store is known as Owner’s Capital or Owners Equity.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 01-04-2025 | SBI Current Bank account | 4,80,000.00 | |
| Petty Cash | 20,000.00 | ||
| Owners Capital | 5,00,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record initial investment from personal savings to start the business. |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Bank Petty Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases asset and expenses: – The business’s bank account is an asset, and it has increased by ₹4,80,000. – The petty cash on hand is also an asset, and it has increased by ₹20,000. |
| Credit | Owners Capital | Equity | In accounting, credit increases liabilities and Equity: – Vivek’s investment increases his ownership in the company, which is an equity account. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
- ₹4,80,000 (Business Bank) + ₹20,000 (Petty Cash) = ₹0 (Liabilities) + ₹5,00,000 (Owner’s Capital)
Scenario 2: Setting up the store – Grocery Assets
- Date: 01-04-2025
- Transactions: Vivek buys few assets for his stores as below:
- Steel racks & Shelves, Digital Weighing Machine & Point of sale (POS) billing system on 90 days credit from Parag Stores for ₹50,000 and
- Tempo Truck for₹125,000 for goods delivery on Hire purchase with monthly installments of ₹5,000 for 36 months at simple interest of 12% per annum.
- Assets: The store equipment’s are purchased on credit i.e. Vendor Loan.
- Liabilities: A new short term debt – Vendor Loan payable is created.
- Liabilities (Long term) – Hire Purchase: Hire Purchase is a financing method where the buyer uses the asset immediately but gains ownership only after completing all instalment payments. Let’s see an example for one month as how instalments and interest for Hire purchase are recorded.
- Outstanding Loan: ₹1,25,000
- Interest @ 1% (12% P.a.): ₹1,250
- Principal = ₹5,000 – ₹1,250 = ₹3,750
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 01-04-2025 | Store Equipment | 50,000.00 | |
| Vendor loan payable | 50,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record equipment’s on credit |
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 01-04-2025 | Vehicle (Tempo) | 1,25,000.00 | |
| Hire Purchase payable | 1,25,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of Tempo through hire purchase | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Hire Purchase payable | 3,750.00 | |
| Interest on Hire purchase | 1,250.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 5,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To pay April month hire purchase instalment and record interest on it |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Store Equipment | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets and expenses: |
| – The store equipment purchased is a fixed asset, and its value has increased by ₹50,000. | |||
| Credit | Vendor Loan Payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities and equity: |
| – Since the equipment was bought on credit, a liability is created. The business now owes ₹50,000 to the vendor. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Vehicle (Tempo) | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets and expenses: |
| – The business has acquired a vehicle for use in operations, which is a fixed asset. The value of the asset has increased by ₹1,25,000. | |||
| Credit | Hire Purchase Payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities and equity: |
| – The business now owes money to the hire vendor. This creates a liability that will be repaid over time in instalments. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Hire Purchase Payable | Liability | In accounting, debit reduces liabilities: |
| – The outstanding balance of the hire purchase liability is reduced as part of the instalment is paid. | |||
| Debit | Interest on Hire Purchase | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses and assets: |
| – Interest paid on the hire purchase is a finance cost and is recorded as an expense. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit reduces assets: |
| – Cash is paid out from the bank account, reducing the business’s available funds. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED ALL THE THREE JOURNALS)
- ₹1,70,000 (Assets) = ₹1,71,250 (Liabilities) + ₹−1,250 (Equity) — which balances because 1,71,250 + (−1,250) = 1,70,000.
Scenario 3: Building inventory
Date: 02/04/2025
Transactions: In order to run the store business, Vivek stocks the store with following grocery items as below:
- Buys Grocery stock like rice, flour, oils, snacks, etc. worth ₹2,00,000 on credit from a supplier (30-day payment).
- Pays ₹4,000 in cash to a transporter (freight inward) to bring the goods to the shop
- Pays ₹60,000 rent in advance for 6 months.
- Pays ₹12,000 for annual fire & theft insurance.
- Paying rent and insurance in advance creates Prepaid Expenses (or Prepaid Assets).
- Concept: A prepaid asset is an advance payment for goods or services that provides future economic benefit and is initially recorded as an asset on the balance sheet.
- Freight inward costs are added to the cost of inventory.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Inventory | 2,00,000.00 | |
| Accounts payable | 2,00,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record the purchase of inventory on credit | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Freight expenses | 4,000.00 | |
| Petty Cash | 4,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record freight costs in cash | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Prepaid rent | 60,000.00 | |
| Prepaid insurance | 12,000.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 72,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record payments of prepaid rent and insurance on cash | ||
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Inventory | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Inventory is a current asset, and it has increased by ₹2,00,000 due to the purchase. | |||
| Credit | Accounts Payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities and equity: |
| – The amount is payable to the supplier, creating a liability for the business. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Freight Expenses | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – Freight costs are part of operating expenses and represent the cost of transporting goods. | |||
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – Cash is an asset and it decreased because payment was made. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Prepaid Rent | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Prepaid rent is an advance payment for future months, thus treated as an asset. | |||
| Debit | Prepaid Insurance | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Prepaid insurance is paid in advance, giving future benefit, hence classified as an asset. | |||
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – Cash went out from the business to make the advance payments. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED IMPACT)
- ₹1,96,000 (Assets) = ₹2,00,000 (Liabilities) + ₹−4,000 (Equity) — and it balances because ₹2,00,000 + (−₹4,000) = ₹1,96,000.
Scenario 4: Building the Foundation – Purchasing the perfect location.
- Date: 02/04/2025
- Transactions: Vivek buys a shop for ₹10,00,000. He pays ₹100,000 from the bank and borrows ₹800,000 as a long-term loan. The property is divided into:
- Land: ₹2,00,000 (Land is an appreciating asset i.e. its value will increase over time and hence not depreciated)
- Building (Shop): ₹8,00,000 (Building will be depreciated over time i.e. its value will be decrease over time)
- Bank loan: Now Vivek has a long term loan obligation of ₹900,000.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 02-04-2025 | Land | 2,00,000.00 | |
| Shop | 8,00,000.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 1,00,000.00 | ||
| SBI Mortgage Loan Payable | 9,00,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of shop via loan account |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Land | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Land is a non-depreciable fixed asset acquired by the business. | |||
| Debit | Shop (Building) | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Shop is a long-term asset added to business property. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – ₹1,00,000 was paid from the business bank account, reducing the bank balance. | |||
| Credit | Bank Loan Payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: |
| – ₹9,00,000 loan was taken to finance the purchase, creating an obligation to repay. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
- Land +₹2,00,000 + Shop +₹8,00,000 − SBI Current Bank −₹1,00,000 = SBI Mortgage Loan Payable +₹9,00,000 + Equity ₹0.00.
Scenario 5: Paying set up costs & borrowing costs for loans
- Date: 03/04/2025
- Transaction: Vivek pays ₹10,000 as a loan processing fee (a borrowing cost) and ₹15,000 for legal services to register the business (a formation cost). Both are paid from the bank.
- Borrowing costs are not immediate expenses and are treated as in intangible assets. Borrowing costs are capitalized and expensed (amortized) over the life of the loan.
- Formation costs (preliminary expenses) are also treated as an intangible asset and amortized over a period, typically 5 years.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 03-04-2025 | Borrowing costs | 10,000.00 | |
| Formation costs | 15,000.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 25,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of shop via loan account |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Borrowing Costs | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – Borrowing costs like loan processing fees are treated as expenses incurred to secure the loan. | |||
| Debit | Formation Costs | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – Formation costs are startup costs related to establishing the business, such as registration and legal fees. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – ₹25,000 paid from the bank account, reducing the business’s cash balance in the bank. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
- SBI Current Bank −₹25,000 = (no change in Liabilities) + Equity −₹25,000
Scenario 6: Buying intangible assets and goodwill
- Date: 04/04/2025
- Transactions: Vivek buys a customer list + supplier database from a retiring shop for ₹70,000. However the actual value was is ₹50,000, but Vivek pays ₹70,000 due to the competitor’s excellent reputation. He also pays ₹25,000 for a logo + trademark.
- Concept: Intangible assets: Intangible assets are non-monetary assets without physical substance that are identifiable and provide future economic benefits.
- Examples include:
- Patents
- Copyrights
- Trademarks
- Software
- Customer lists
- Franchise rights
- Copyrights/Databases: The ₹50,000 paid for the customer/supplier lists is an intangible asset (Copyrights/Databases) that will provide future economic benefits.
- Concept: Copyrights are a form of intellectual property that grant creators exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, perform, or adapt their original works—such as music, literature, software, or educational content—for a limited time.
- Goodwill: The extra ₹20,000 paid above the fair value of the assets is called Goodwill. It represents the value of the seller’s reputation& is not amortized.
- Concept: Goodwill is an intangible asset that arises when one company acquires another for a price higher than the fair market value of its net identifiable assets.
- Trademarks: The ₹25,000 for the logo is a Trademark, another intangible asset that provides brand identity and legal protection and will be amortized over its useful life.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 04-04-2025 | Copyrights & Databases | 50,000.00 | |
| Goodwill | 20,000.00 | ||
| Trademarks | 25,000.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 95,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record purchase of intangible assets |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Copyrights & Databases | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – These are intangible assets giving exclusive rights to creative content or data. | |||
| Debit | Goodwill | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Goodwill represents reputation or customer loyalty purchased along with business. | |||
| Debit | Trademarks | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Trademarks are legally protected brand identities, considered intangible assets. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – ₹95,000 paid from the bank account, reducing the cash balance. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
- Copyrights & Databases +₹50,000 + Goodwill +₹20,000 + Trademarks +₹25,000 − SBI Current Bank −₹95,000 = (no change in Liabilities) + Equity ₹0
Scenario 7: Monthly Amortization of Intangibles (Non-Cash Expense)
- Date: 30/04/2025
- Transactions: At the end of the month, a part of intangible assets are expensed out. This process is called amortization – very similar to depreciation but related to intangible assets.
| Item | Total Value (₹) | Useful Life | Monthly Amortization |
| Borrowing Costs | 10,000 | 10 years (120 months) | ₹10,000 / 120 months = ₹83.33 |
| Formation Costs | 15,000 | 5 years (60 months) | ₹15,000 / 60 months = ₹250.00 |
| Trademarks | 25,000 | 10 years (120 months) | ₹25,000 / 120 months = ₹208.33 |
- Total Monthly Amortization Expense: ₹83.33 + ₹250 + ₹208.33 = ₹541.66
- Concept: Contra assets: A contra asset is an asset account that has a credit balance, which is the opposite of the normal debit balance found in regular asset accounts. Its purpose is to reduce the value of a related asset on the balance sheet, providing a more accurate and realistic net value.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Amortization expenses | 541.66 | |
| Accumulated Amortization of Borrowing costs | 83.33 | ||
| Accumulated Amortization of Formation costs | 250.00 | ||
| Accumulated Amortization of Trademarks | 208.33 | ||
| Narration: | To record April month amortization expenses |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Amortization Expenses | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – Recognizing a portion of intangible asset costs as expense for the month of April. | |||
| Credit | Accumulated Amortization of Borrowing Costs | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases contra-assets: |
| – Reduces the carrying amount of the borrowing cost asset over time. | |||
| Credit | Accumulated Amortization of Formation Costs | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases contra-assets: |
| – Reflects the portion of formation costs amortized in April. | |||
| Credit | Accumulated Amortization of Trademarks | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases contra-assets: |
| – Records the April amortization of the trademark’s value. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity
- Assets −₹541.66 = (no change in Liabilities) + Equity −₹541.66
Scenario 8: The Door Opens: Sales kicks in – Cash + Credit + GST
Date: 05/04/2025
Transactions: The customer starts walking in the store and it’s the first month of sales which are narrated as below:
- The walk-in customers generates cash sales of ₹3,00,000 (Excl. GST).
- Vivek secures a deal to supply groceries to local office worth credit sale ₹50,000 (Excl. GST).
- 5% GST on all sales.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 05-04-2025 | Petty Cash | 3,15,000.00 | |
| Sales | 3,00,000.00 | ||
| GST on sales | 15,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record cash sales and GST liability | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 05-04-2025 | Accounts receivable | 52,500.00 | |
| Sales | 50,000.00 | ||
| GST on Sales | 2,500.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record credit sales and GST liability |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – ₹3,15,000 received from customers increases the business’s cash balance. | |||
| Credit | Sales | Revenue | In accounting, credit increases revenues: |
| – ₹3,00,000 worth of goods sold increases the business’s income. | |||
| Credit | GST on Sales | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: |
| – ₹15,000 collected as GST is payable to the government, creating a liability. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Accounts Receivable | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – ₹52,500 is expected to be collected from the customer, increasing receivables. | |||
| Credit | Sales | Revenue | In accounting, credit increases revenues: |
| – ₹50,000 of goods sold on credit increases business revenue. | |||
| Credit | GST on Sales | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: |
| – ₹2,500 collected as GST creates a tax liability payable to the government. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED IMPACT)
- Balanced: ₹3,67,500 (Assets) = ₹17,500 (Liabilities) + ₹3,50,000 (Equity)
Scenario 9: Passive (Non-operating) income
Date: 06/04/2025
Transactions: Below are the additional cash inflows incurred while running the business:
- Vivek earns ₹500 as interest from his business savings account.
- Vivek also rents a small display area in shop to local vendor receiving ₹1,500 in cash.
- Vivek sells old store equipment for ₹500 whose Book value is ₹1,000 and thus incurring a loss of ₹500.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 06-04-2025 | SBI Current Bank account | 500.00 | |
| Interest Income | 500.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record interest income | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 06-04-2025 | Petty Cash | 1,500.00 | |
| Miscellaneous Income | 1,500.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record miscellaneous income | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 06-04-2025 | Petty Cash | 500.00 | |
| Loss on sale of asset | 500.00 | ||
| Store Equipment | 1,000.00 | ||
| Narration: | To record sale of old table at a loss |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Bank | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – ₹500 interest received increases the bank balance. | |||
| Credit | Interest Income | Income | In accounting, credit increases income: |
| – ₹500 is earned from interest, increasing total income. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – ₹1,500 cash received increases the business’s liquid assets. | |||
| Credit | Miscellaneous Income | Income | In accounting, credit increases income: |
| – ₹1,500 is recorded as income from non-core activities. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – ₹500 cash received from selling the asset. | |||
| Debit | Loss on Sale of Asset | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – ₹500 is recorded as a loss due to asset being sold below its book value. | |||
| Credit | Store Equipment | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – ₹1,000 worth of store equipment removed from the books due to sale. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED IMPACT)
- Balanced: ₹1,500 (Assets) = ₹0 (Liabilities) + ₹1,500 (Equity)
Scenario 10: Operational costs for doing business
Date: 25/04/2025
Transactions: Vivek incurs following expenses and pays in cash for running the day to day operations of the stores.
- Wages/Salaries for two staff members: ₹40,000
- Electricity bill (for lights, refrigeration): ₹5,000
- Stationery and printing: ₹2,000
- Drainage and plumbing repair: ₹3,000
- Bank service charges: ₹500
- Flyers for local advertising: ₹8,000
- Goods taken by Vivek for home use (groceries): ₹3,500
- Monthly warehouse on operating lease to store extra stocks: ₹15,000 and
- Godown (Cost ₹7,00,000 & useful life 7 years) on 3-year Finance Lease with an option to purchase the asset at the end of the lease: ₹20,000
- CA Parag submits his invoice for preparing Vivek’s year-end Profit & Loss and Balance Sheet charging fees of ₹15,000 (Professional services attract 18% GST – CGST 9% + SGST 9%).
- The Bookkeeper – Hemant (Hemant is not registered for GST) sends an invoice for ₹10,000 for the April month’s bookkeeping services. Vivek agrees to pay it next month.
- Vivek pays ₹5,900 (Professional GST services attract 18% GST – CGST 9% + SGST 9%) to the tax consultant – Abhisekh for handling GST return filing.
- Goods for own use or Goods withdrawn for personal use:
- Concept: When the owner uses business goods for personal consumptions, it reduces owner’s money or investment in the business and thus it is not an expense. It is considered drawings.
- Lease:
- Concept: A lease is a contractual agreement where the lessor (the owner of an asset), grants another party, the lessee (the user), the right to use a specific asset (without having to purchase them) —such as property, equipment, or vehicles— for a specified period in exchange for regular periodic payments.
- Types of Lease: Primarily there are two types of lease:
- Operating Lease
- A Short-term lease where lessor retains ownership risks and rewards.
- Common for equipment or vehicles.
- Asset is returned to the lessor at the end of the lease term.
- Accounting treatment: Treated as regular rent expenses
- Finance Lease (Capital Lease)
- Long-term lease, often covering most of the asset’s useful life.
- Lessee undertakes most risks and rewards of ownership.
- Generally includes an option to purchase the asset at the end of the lease.
- Accounting Treatment:
- Record the asset at its cost and depreciate it over its useful life.
- Record the lease as liabilities in the financials.
- Record the monthly lease payments by dissecting the lease payments into interest expenses and reduction against the liability.
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 25-04-2025 | Salaries Expense | 40,000.00 | |
| Utilities expenses | 5,000.00 | ||
| Office supplies expenses | 2,000.00 | ||
| Repairs and Maintenance | 3,000.00 | ||
| Bank charges | 500.00 | ||
| Advertisement expense | 8,000.00 | ||
| Drawings | 3,500.00 | ||
| Petty Cash | 62,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record payment of operating expenses and goods withdrawn by owner for personal use | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 25-04-2025 | Accounting fees | 12,712.00 | |
| Input CGST | 1,144.00 | ||
| Input SGST | 1,144.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 15,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record accounting fees including 18% GST | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 25-04-2025 | Bookkeeping fees | 10,000.00 | |
| Outstanding expenses | 10,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To accrue bookkeeping fees to be paid next month | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 25-04-2025 | Tax compliance fees | 5,000.00 | |
| Input CGST | 450.00 | ||
| Input SGST | 450.00 | ||
| SBI Current Bank account | 5,900.00 | ||
| Narration | To record GST return filling fees including 18% GST |
| Operating Lease | |||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 26-04-2025 | Rent expenses (Warehouse operating lease) | 10,000.00 | |
| SBI Current Bank account | 10,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record rent paid for warehouse under operating lease |
| Godown under Finance Lease | |||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 26-04-2025 | Godown account | 7,00,000.00 | |
| Godown Lease Liability account | 7,00,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record Godown asset bought under finance lease |
| Finance Lease: ₹20,000 monthly instalment includes ₹2,000 as Interest & ₹18,000 towards lease liability | |||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 26-04-2025 | Interest expenses (Godown lease) | 2,000.00 | |
| SBI Current Bank account | 2,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record interest portion of godown financial lease payment | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 26-04-2025 | Godown Lease Liability account | 18,000.00 | |
| SBI Current Bank account | 18,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record principal reduction in lease liability for godown | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 26-04-2025 | Depreciation | 8,333.00 | |
| Accumulated Depreciation on godown | 8,333.00 | ||
| Narration | To record depreciation on godown (assuming ₹7,00,000 value over 7 years → ₹8,333/month) |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Salaries Expense | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – To record payment of staff salaries for the month. |
| Debit | Utilities Expenses | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – To record electricity and other utility payments. |
| Debit | Office Supplies Expense | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – For consumables used in daily operations. |
| Debit | Repairs and Maintenance | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – For minor repair/maintenance of assets or infrastructure. |
| Debit | Bank Charges | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – To record transaction fees or charges deducted by bank. |
| Debit | Advertisement Expense | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – For promotional costs to boost business. |
| Debit | Drawings | Owner’s Equity | In accounting, debit decreases capital (equity): – For goods/cash withdrawn by the owner for personal use. |
| Credit | Cash | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Cash paid for all above expenses and owner’s withdrawal. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Accounting Fees | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – To record professional accounting service charges. |
| Debit | Input CGST | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets (input GST credit): – To record 9% CGST on fees (₹12,712 × 9%). |
| Debit | Input SGST | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets (input GST credit): – To record 9% SGST on fees (₹12,712 × 9%). |
| Credit | Bank | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Payment made via bank for accounting services including GST. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Bookkeeping Fees | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – To recognize bookkeeping services used during the month. | |||
| Credit | Outstanding Expenses | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: |
| – Payment is yet to be made, hence the obligation is recorded as payable. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Tax Compliance Fees | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – To record GST return filing service charges. |
| Debit | Input CGST | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets (input GST credit): – To record 9% CGST on ₹5,000. |
| Debit | Input SGST | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets (input GST credit): – To record 9% SGST on ₹5,000. |
| Credit | Bank | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Full payment made from the bank including GST. |
| Godown – Finance Lease | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Reason |
| Debit | Godown | Asset | In accounting, debit increases assets: |
| – Recognise right-of-use asset for finance lease | |||
| – Cost = ₹7,00,000 | |||
| Credit | Lease Liability | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: |
| – Obligation to pay lease instalments over 3 years | |||
| Godown – Finance Lease – Interest Portion (₹2,000) | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Interest Expenses (Godown lease) | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – For the interest cost on the godown leased under financial lease. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – Bank payment made for interest component of lease instalment. | |||
| Godown – Finance Lease – Principal (Lease Liability Reduction) (₹18,000) | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Godown Lease Liability Account | Liability | In accounting, debit decreases liabilities: |
| – To reduce the outstanding lease liability portion of the godown lease. | |||
| Credit | Bank Account | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: |
| – Payment made from bank toward lease principal portion. | |||
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Depreciation | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: |
| – To record periodic loss in value of the godown (₹8,333/month). | |||
| Credit | Accumulated Depreciation on godown | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases accumulated depreciation: |
| – Reduces the book value of the godown asset over time. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED IMPACT)
- Balanced: ₹581,955 (Assets) = ₹692,000 (Liabilities) + ₹−110,045 (Equity)
- Assets (net change): +₹581,955 (Net Sum: −₹62,000 −₹12,712 +0 −₹5,000 −₹10,000 +₹700,000 −₹2,000 −₹18,000 −₹8,333 = +₹581,955)
- Liabilities (net change): +₹692,00 (Net Sum: +₹0 +₹0 +₹10,000 +₹0 +₹0 +₹700,000 +₹0 −₹18,000 +₹0 = +₹692,000)
- Equity (net change): −₹110,045 (Net Sum:−₹62,000 −₹12,712 −₹10,000 −₹5,000 −₹10,000 +₹0 −₹2,000 +₹0 −₹8,333 = −₹110,045)
Scenario 11: Month end adjustments:
Vivek follows accrual basis of accounting and month is also over, but accounting isn’t done yet for the month. Vivek must make few adjustments to get correct picture of profitability for the month of April 2025.
Date: 30/04/2025
Transactions:
- Adjustment 1: Expense out rent from Prepaid rent for the April 2025 (₹60,000 / 6 months = ₹10,000).
- Adjustment 2: Expense out insurance from prepaid Insurance for the April 2025 (₹12,000 / 12 months = ₹1,000).
- Adjustment 3: Staff worked overtime on 2 days on weekend, leading to overtime wages ₹2,000 to be billed in next month billing cycle.
- Adjustment 4: Vivek calculates the monthly depreciation on his assets: Building (₹5,000), Store Equipment (₹2,000), and Scooter (₹1,000).
- Concept: Depreciation: Depreciation is the systematic reduction in the recorded cost of a tangible fixed asset (like furniture, machinery, or buildings) over its useful life due to wear and tear, obsolescence, or passage of time.
- Please note that in many small business scenarios the accounting depreciation and taxation depreciation are different and hence they are added back in computation of total income or tax reconciliation statements.
- Adjustment 5: Vivek decides to set aside 40% as provision for bad debts for groceries supplied to local office. The total bill is ₹50,000 & 40% amounts to ₹20,000 (refer phase 3 – scenario 1).
- Concept: Bad debts: A dad debt is an account receivable that is no longer recoverable. In accounting, it is treated as an expense (or loss) in financial statements.
- Concept: Provision for bad debts: The Provision for bad debts, also known as an allowance for doubtful debts, is an estimated amount set aside in advance for debts that may become bad in the future, based on past experience or judgment. In accounting, bad debts expense is debited in Profit and loss statement and provision for bad debts is credited in balance sheet against Accounts receivable.
- Please note that as provisions are estimate they are not deductible in tax reconciliation statement or computation of total income statements.
- Adjustment 6: A customer returns a damaged item and gets cash refund of ₹500.
- Adjustment 7: Vivek withdraws ₹20,000 cash from the business for his household expenses (Drawings).
- JOURNAL ENTRY:
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Rent expenses | 10,000.00 | |
| Prepaid Rent | 10,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To recognise rent expenses from prepaid rent for the month of April 2025 | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Insurance | 1,000.00 | |
| Prepaid insurance | 1,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To recognise insurance expenses from prepaid insurance for the month of April 2025 | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Wages | 2,000.00 | |
| Wages payable | 2,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record overtime wages for weekend work | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Depreciation | 8,000.00 | |
| Accumulated depreciation on shop | 5,000.00 | ||
| Accumulated depreciation on store equipment | 2,000.00 | ||
| Accumulated depreciation on vehicle | 1,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record depreciation for the month of April 2025 | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Bad debts | 20,000.00 | |
| Provision for bad debts | 20,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record provision for bad debts @ 40% on local store groceries supplies | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Sales return | 500.00 | |
| SBI Current Bank account | 500.00 | ||
| Narration | To record a customer refund | ||
| Date | Account | Debit | Credit |
| 30-04-2025 | Drawings | 20,000.00 | |
| SBI Current Bank account | 20,000.00 | ||
| Narration | To record Vivek’s personal withdrawal from the business |
- Debit and Credit Analysis: The Language of Accounting in below tabular format:
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Rent Expenses | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Rent cost recognized for the current month. |
| Credit | Prepaid Rent | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Amount is now used up from earlier prepaid rent. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Insurance | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Monthly insurance cost recognised from prepaid balance. |
| Credit | Prepaid Insurance | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Prepaid insurance consumed for current period. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Wages | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Overtime wages for weekend work accrued. |
| Credit | Wages Payable | Liability | In accounting, credit increases liabilities: – Wages to be paid in the future. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Depreciation | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Monthly depreciation on fixed assets. |
| Credit | Accumulated Depreciation – Shop | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases accumulated depreciation: – For building wear/tear. |
| Credit | Accumulated Depreciation – Equipment | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases accumulated depreciation: – For store equipment usage. |
| Credit | Accumulated Depreciation – Vehicle | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases accumulated depreciation: – For vehicle depreciation. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Bad Debts | Expense | In accounting, debit increases expenses: – Estimated uncollectible amount from credit sales. |
| Credit | Provision for Bad Debts | Contra-Asset | In accounting, credit increases allowance: – To set up reserve against doubtful receivables. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Sales Return | Contra-Revenue | In accounting, debit increases sales return: – Reversal of revenue due to refund. |
| Credit | Bank | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Cash refunded to the customer. |
| Side | Accounts | Type | Conceptual Explanation: |
| Debit | Drawings | Owner’s Equity | In accounting, debit decreases capital: – Owner withdrew cash for personal use. |
| Credit | Bank | Asset | In accounting, credit decreases assets: – Business funds withdrawn by the owner. |
- Accounting Equation analysis:
- The Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Equity (COMBINED IMPACT)
- Assets −₹59,500 = Liabilities +₹2,000 + Equity −₹61,500
- Assets (sum of effects):
• Prepaid Rent −₹10,000
• Prepaid Insurance −₹1,000
• Accumulated Depreciation (net effect on assets) −₹8,000
• Provision for Bad Debts (contra-asset) −₹20,000
• SBI Current Bank (sales refund) −₹500
• SBI Current Bank (drawings) −₹20,000
Net Assets = −₹59,500 - Liabilities (sum of effects):
• Wages Payable +₹2,000
Net Liabilities = +₹2,000 - Equity (sum of effects):
• Rent expense −₹10,000
• Insurance expense −₹1,000
• Wages expense −₹2,000
• Depreciation −₹8,000
• Bad debts expense −₹20,000
• Sales return −₹500
• Drawings −₹20,000
Net Equity = −₹61,500
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